In the face of agrochemical overuse, the expansion of monocultures, and poor water management, biodiversity in cotton growing regions is under threat, reveals the latest Cotton Paper.
Cotton and Biodiversity, a report by Solidaridad and the Organic Cotton Accelerator (OCA), reveals that biodiversity in cotton growing regions is under threat across three levels: genetic, ecosystem, and species diversity. With around 35 million hectares under cotton cultivation globally, approximately 2.5 percent of Earth’s arable land, this threat should not be taken lightly, with the potential for cotton farming to play a role in the ongoing decline of global biodiversity remaining a concern.
Poor farming practices putting biodiversity at risk
Cotton and Bioversity delves into some of the key contributing factors to biodiversity loss in cotton farming.
Globally, conventional farmed cotton is the sixth most pesticide-intensive crop and it ranks third in terms of the volume of highly hazardous insecticide used in its cultivation. Research shows that the widespread use of inorganic pesticides and chemical fertilizers in conventional cotton production can have major implications for biodiversity across multiple levels. This can lead to widespread resistance to common pesticides used on cotton plants and seeds and has triggered outbreaks of secondary pests like whiteflies, mirid bugs and aphids, further escalating pesticide dependence, leading to the deaths of many other creatures inhabiting this soil as part of their natural ecosystem.
Monocultures, where one single species is repeatedly grown across larger areas of land, deteriorate soil health and fertility, while hampering local plant and animal ecosystems. This is due to practices like overtilling and leaving soil exposed, and reducing soil health. Declining soil health leads to weaker cotton plants that are more vulnerable to pests and diseases, increasing the reliance on inorganic fertilizers and pesticides.
Poor water management, similarly, can have a hugely detrimental impact on local biodiversity due to water pollution, salinization and even improper irrigation. For example, the death of more than one million fish in Australia’s Lower Darling River System in 2019 was attributed to its water being diverted for cotton irrigation during a drought.
Smallholder farmers can play an important role in saving biodiversity
The paper shows that it is more common for industrial-scale farms to use modern technologies like mechanized irrigation systems and drones and aircraft for applying agrochemicals, all of which can negatively impact surrounding biodiversity. They are also more likely to cultivate monocultures for efficient harvesting with machinery, which can reduce soil health. Large-scale farms can present opportunities to protect biodiversity, and with their greater resources can coordinate landscape-level interventions capable of improving on all categories, but apart from some clear success stories, large-scale farming remains agrochemical intensive and harmful.
Smallholders, who produce over 70% of the world’s cotton (Solidaridad, 2023), are well placed to play a crucial role in staving off and even reversing biodiversity loss across the globe. Investments in, for instance, organic or regenerative farming can turn cotton farms into contributors to biodiversity in the ecosystem.
“Agriculture can play an important role in enhancing biodiversity, if done in balance with nature.” says Tamar Hoek, Senior Policy Director, Sustainable Fashion, at Solidaridad. “However, before cotton farming can become truly environmentally and economically sustainable, we first need to restore what’s already been lost to excessive use of agrochemicals, land conversion, monocultures and poor water management.”
“Smallholder farmers are well placed to lead this shift.”said Bart Vollaard, Executive Director, OCA. “When adopting organic practices, their farms become more biodiverse and resilient. Our recent Life Cycle Assessment shows that organic farming significantly reduces environmental impacts like greenhouse gas emissions, water use and chemical pollution. These reductions are critical for protecting ecosystems and the species that depend on them. What’s needed now is long-term investment and commitment from brands, governments and the entire supply chain to scale these efforts and secure a future where cotton production can act as a catalyst for biodiversity.”
OCA’s recent regional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study in India shows that organic farming reduces environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, eutrophication and water use compared to conventional practices. It also significantly lowers ecotoxicity; reducing harmful chemical exposure to soil, water and wildlife. By eliminating inorganic pesticides and fertilizers, organic farming directly supports healthier ecosystems and greater biodiversity.
Case Studies: Potential Impact
Case studies cited in the paper show how significant a shift to sustainable practices in cotton farming can be. During the 2020-2021 crop cycle Solidaridad worked with 8,000 cotton farmers to introduce more regenerative practices in Maharashtra, India, using Regenagri certification as a framework. Five years on, as of May 2025, 39,498.05 hectares are under regenerative agriculture in Maharashtra as part of the programme, representing about 1 percent of the total area under cotton production in the region. On-farm benefits include a 12-30 percent reduction in cost of cultivation, 12-18 percent increase in yields and 35 percent water savings since the programme began.
OCA’s project in Petlawad, Madhya Pradesh, India, also shows similarly promising results. Through OCA’s Farm Programme, farming couple Rama and Sajan Bhilji have spent the past five years transitioning their farm to organic cotton. A key part of this transition is a demonstration plot; a small section of their farm where they experiment with nature-based practices. The couple’s demo plot acts as a living classroom for the community, where local farmers can see for themselves how biodiversity benefits the land. The practices adopted in the demo-plots help bring back beneficial insects, improve soil health and reduce dependency on inorganic inputs. On their plot, cotton grows alongside green gram, pigeon pea and sunflowers. Intercropping builds soil fertility and attracts pollinators. Cover crops like lobia and black gram reduce erosion and nourish the earth, while marigold borders offer natural pest control. Along the edges, neem, bamboo, acacia, mango and jujube trees form a living fence that provides shade, invites birds and bees and helps retain soil moisture.
As Rama puts it: “Each crop, each tree and each insect has a role. I’m growing a healthy system that can support itself.”
Next steps for companies, farmer organizations and governments
Such case studies, however promising, will achieve little in isolation. Organic and regenerative farming in cotton needs to be scaled up for impact. The Cotton and Biodiversity paper ends by urging supply chain actors to act now. Brands and retailers need to go beyond purchasing cotton from certified sources and establish sustainability budgets to invest in supporting farmers to transition to nature-positive practices that enhance biodiversity. Farmer organizations and standards systems need to invest in training farmers and workers on biodiversity-enhancing and socially responsible farming practices.
Governments in producing and consuming regions need to support and strengthen public institutions’ and universities’ research into cotton seed development, input optimization and effective crop combinations to enhance biodiversity.
With such action, cotton farmers can be transformed from a threat to biodiversity to a saviour.
This paper is published on the Sustainable Cotton Hub, which aims to provide a comprehensive overview of sustainability challenges in cotton production. It’s home to a series of papers looking at economic, social and environmental sustainability factors.